The first coffehouse
I have finally decided to undertake an arduous yet fascinating task that I had been putting off for quite some time. No, I won't be reading Proust or powering through Tolkien’s masterpieces; I am undertaking another formidable journey. I gave myself permission to indulge in the history of one of the world’s most beloved social institutions: the coffeehouse.
Ever since my university years, I have been turning to cafés for group work, lively or soothing conversations with friends, as well as for solitary time spent reading, writing and thinking. Of course, being a coffee lover, one would readily assign the allure of the coffeehouse to the product itself, but I am convinced that there is more to it than caffeine.
This is the first piece in The Coffeehouse Journals series. It attempts to explore how the first coffeehouses originally emerged in the Near East and thus forever changed the landscape of urban life and culture.
A world without coffee
Once upon a time, coffee was still unknown to humans. People woke up, laboured, fought wars, wrote poetry, loved, unaware that somewhere in the world existed a fruit that would give them revitalising powers, a pure Getafix potion. ‘There is no coffee in the Torah, or the Bible, or the Koran. There is no coffee in Shakespeare, Dante or Cervantes', writes Markman Ellis in his preface to The Coffeehouse: A Cultural History. Coffee is indeed a relatively recent discovery. To recover its roots, we need to look back to Ethiopia in the 1500s.
The first obstacle in retracing the origins of the coffeehouse is the absence of early historical documentation on coffee. Considering the nature of the subject matter – a food commodity – one cannot expect it to be given much space in historical writing. We are, however, safe to believe that coffee became widely known in the Islamic world sometime in the mid-15thth century.
As vague as the origin date might sound, the narratives that accompany the discovery of the coffee bean are even more questionable. They mostly consist of legends, such as the story of Kaldi, the famous shepherd, who is credited with the discovery of coffee because he noticed an unusual kick in his herd’s energy after having grazed on the plant.
These stories, however, seem to reveal important information. According to Ralph Hattox, author of the book Coffee and Coffeehouses: The Origins of a Social Beverage in the Medieval Near East, the piece of truth these stories hold is that they link the consumption of coffee to Yemen and, most importantly, to the mystical Sufi religious orders.
The first coffee drinkers
The Sufis were religious orders that used to gather at night for their meditations and prayers. During these worship services, the so-called dhikrs, they had to maintain a certain mental state that would allow them to stay awake at night. Since most members were laymen with a regular job to manage during the day, ‘anything that could lead them to mental excitement and ward off sleep would be seen as an aid to devotions, ’ explains Hattox. Coffee, offering such invigorating properties, was soon to be included in their practices. It wasn’t for its pleasant taste that one was drawn to coffee, but rather for its stimulating qualities.
The birth of the coffeehouse
The coffee drinking ritual, ushered in by the Sufis, took off, and soon, an unfamiliar establishment came into the scene: the coffeehouse. Even though sources on the origins of the coffeehouse are even scantier than those on coffee, the existing evidence points to an institution of Arab origins that first appeared in the early 16th century. This new institution emerged as an immediate response to an unusual, bitter, mind-altering’ drink, but it also catered to an underlying change in the workings of the Islamic society: the dormant, but growing need for a place to socialise that was other than one’s home.
The growing interest in coffee created a powerful effect on the heart of social life within the Islamic communities. People took to the drink to such a degree that it became ‘a public pastime’, as Hattox illustrates. Even though one could perfectly savour its invigorating qualities at the leisure of their own home, the coffeehouse became the preferred place to enjoy the new beverage. The incentive was, quite frankly, financially oriented. The merchants had noticed the appeal of coffee in the communities to which it was introduced and became very interested in making a profit by bringing it to bigger markets. However, they soon realised that just selling coffee beans was unlikely to take off. ‘Who would buy such a product whose properties, uses, and preparation were a complete mystery to him?’, explains Hattox. So, they came up with a marketing strategy: they started selling the beverage already brewed in little stands or shops.
The idea did not rise out of thin air. There had been establishments where people gathered for a drink long before the coffeehouse emerged. Those places were, of course, the taverns. The problem was that no respectable man would want to be caught in one because taverns sold wine, and wine is strictly prohibited by the Koran. As a result, taverns came to be seen as symbols of low-life activity. The tavern had indeed provided some substructure for the coffeehouse, but what soon became clear was that this new institution would grow quintessentially very different from the 'winehouses'. The reason for this lay in the product itself: whereas the tavern sold wine, an intoxicant that brought forth sluggishness, the coffeehouse sold coffee, a stimulant that was associated with rigour, vitality and reason.
Coffee, reason and sociability
Coffee did not taste good. People didn’t drink coffee because of its pleasant taste. They turned to it because of the effects it had on their bodies. As traveller George Manwaring comments in 1601, ‘it is nothing toothsome, nor hath any good smell, but it is very wholesome.’ Other European travellers describe it as 'black as soot’ and they ascribe similar characteristics to its taste: ‘burnt, bitter and gritty’. There is no unity of opinion on the wholesomeness of the effects of coffee on body and mind, but for one thing: coffee repels sleep. It stimulates the mind, and when the mind is alert, people start to think, want to share. Conversation is kindled.
George Sandys, English traveller and poet, recalled how he had lamented the lack of taverns in Istanbul. He was unable to establish his own network of friends because he could find no taverns, like he was used to in London, where he could meet with men of learning and philosophy. Instead, he noticed the ‘coffa-houses’ where, as Ellis explains, ‘he recognised the kind of convivial social encounters that he enjoyed in the taverns of his London: like-minded men meeting for conversation, for pleasantries and debate, over a sociable drink. The difference was that in it the Turks consumed coffee.’ Coffee was a stimulant, and like wine, albeit of a different nature, it too affected body and mind. However, no holy law or human mandate would ever be able to put down coffee or the coffeehouse. And so, the coffeehouse started to flourish.
Coffee stalls, coffee shops and coffeehouses
Hattox mentions three distinct types of coffee outlets that cropped up early on. To begin with, there was the coffee stall, which was basically a small cubicle designed for ‘take-out’ coffee with no place to sit. It was usually found in commercial areas accommodating people who worked in the market.
Then there were the coffee shops. These were small, local shops, very similar to coffee stalls. The difference was that they also provided the opportunity to sit inside. The space was quite limited, so people often ended up using the neigbouring shops as sitting places. These neighbourhood cafés held, as Hattox informs us, ‘a strictly functioning’ quality which comes to stark contrast to the third sort of coffee outlet, the coffeehouse.
The coffeehouse was a very luxurious enterprise. Often referred to as grand-scale or ‘metropolitan’, these establishments were found in several urban centers in the Near East. They were created with the intention of relieving the customers from the drag of the urban scene, so the owners often tried to conjure a park or gardenlike quality: 'All the cafés of Damascus are beautiful—lots of fountains, nearby rivers, tree-shaded spots, roses and other flowers; a cool, refreshing and pleasant spot', writes French traveller, Jean de Thévenot. Some of them were also built along countryside routes, which, of course, made the endeavour a lot easier. But even the ones in the city managed to bring forth the ‘alfresco enjoyment’ for their patrons by placing ‘benches of masonry, with mats on them, where they can sit who wish to be out in the open air and watch the passers-by.’
The success of the coffeehouse
If the complicated process of turning coffee beans into a beverage was the only reason behind the existence of the coffeehouse, then one naturally would wonder: why the need to go beyond the coffee stall? After all, one could get their coffee perfectly brewed, replenish their energy levels with a few quick gulps and get on with their day.
Part of the answer lies within the fact that coffee, in the form it was prepared in the Near East, required time. The way the Turks prepared their coffee did not allow for haste. One does not have to be a coffee connoisseur to understand that coffee must be served and drunk warm. As Hattox illustrates: ‘the customer cannot merely have a steaming cup of coffee shoved into his hands and be expected just to swallow it down.’ Having started with the Sufis, coffee drinking has always been a ritual.
The next question that comes up is why people, once they became familiar with the brewing method, still flocked to the coffeehouse instead of simply taking their coffee at home. The answer is not to be found in the beverage itself. It seems that the coffeehouse gave people the excuse they needed to get out of the house. As Hattox describes it, ‘there was an underlying and previously dormant social itch, and the coffeehouse at least provided a means, and more importantly, one that was not altogether disgraceful, for giving it a bit of a scratch.’ The coffeehouse responded to an unmet social need. In other words, the coffeehouses offered something extra, something yet unknown that hadn’t yet been part of people’s lives. It offered a social outlet without disrupting the established routines and habits.
Physical comfort was another big player in the appeal of the coffeehouse. The relaxing atmosphere that coffeehouses tried to create acted as a haven for people coming from the hustle and bustle of the city streets. People rejoiced in the comfort of soft cushions and the invigorating aroma of caffeine. What drew them the most in these new establishments, however, was the opportunity to come together with others and engage in friendly banter or meaningful conversation. This opportunity to socialise is what steered people to the coffeehouse the most, but at the same time, this was also the very thing that drove many against them.
The opposition
The early opponents of the coffeehouse outwardly blamed the coffee bean. Since it was the mind-altering properties of coffee that initially attracted people to the drink, they concluded that it must have an intoxicating quality. The fact that the first coffeehouses resembled taverns, which had acquired a very notorious reputation, didn’t make things any easier.
However, what appeared to be an attack on the intoxicating qualities of coffee was just a pretext. The real reason behind the hostilities had more to do with the coffeehouse as a place for social intercourse than with the qualities of the drink itself. There have been at least two attempts at prohibition during the 16th century, but all were short-lived. Quite revealing is the fact that the chewing of beans – a common practice back then – was permitted; what was prohibited was the drinking of coffee, and as we have already seen, the best spot for a coffee brew was the coffeehouse.
Conversation, news and other diversions
If coffee was the red herring for the opposition, it also acted as an excuse for the habitués of the coffeehouse. One chose to go to the coffeehouse not just to drink coffee but mainly to spend time with others in conversation and entertainment. I need to stress here that the clientele of the coffeehouse was predominantly male as the position of women at the time did not allow for such diversions.
In the coffeehouse, people engaged in conversation of all sorts. One could think of the coffeehouse as the temple of social interaction where frivolous and friendly chitchat took central place. But so did intense gossiping. The coffeehouse conversation culture soon grew into a vibrant literary activity, quite similar to what was to happen later in Europe. Hattox likens the coffeehouse to a ‘literary forum’ where ‘poets would submit their latest compositions for the assessment of the critical public. In other corners of the coffeehouse there might be heated discussions on art, the sciences or literature’.
Another important development in the coffeehouse culture was the dissemination of news. The coffeehouses soon became the newspaper of the time. Everything you needed to know about current affairs was discussed there. ‘One wishing to hear the latest news – or more likely, the freshest rumours – needed only to station himself in the coffeehouse for a short time’, comments Hattox. Literary activity and the circulation of news will come to play a major role in the development of the coffeehouse in Europe.
Besides perfecting the art of conversation or catching up on the latest news, one could also enjoy more light-hearted activities. There were games of chess or backgammon, storytelling performances, musical entertainment or puppet shows for the patrons to enjoy. The atmosphere in the coffeehouses was fresh, vibrant and inviting. This convivial character of the coffeehouse had its underside too.
Entertainment, idleness and unseemly behaviour
Not all the talking that took place in the coffeehouse was of a light and friendly nature. Rumours, gossip and made-up stories were often shared among the patrons. People felt free to express themselves, but this free exchange of ideas sometimes took a more sinister turn. ‘More than one coup d’ état has been launched from, or at least plotted in, a coffeehouse,’ remarks Hattox. It takes little imagination to see why this roused a wave of opposition from those in power.
Other attacks on the wholesomeness of the coffeehouse include more profane practices such as gambling, drug use and illicit sex.
The coffeehouse soon became associated with leisure. This may sound completely harmless today, but for the norms of the time, the idleness that characterised the habitués of the coffeehouse was reprehensible. The image of a patron smoking, sipping coffee and conversing did not exactly prescribe to the ideal of a productive pastime.
The literary activity that grew in the coffeehouse was also a source of concern. There was a growing fear that the secular nature of the coffeehouse had replaced the mosque as a centre of learning and erudite reflection. ‘Whereas formerly men might have spent their time studying or conversing on subjects of significance to their souls in the mosque, now they went to the coffeehouse, a place where little in the way of pious activity went on’, reflects Hattox. But the coffeehouse was not merely a replacement for the mosque or the tavern. It was something else altogether.
Social change
It is natural to assume that the coffeehouse was simply an evolution of some pre-existing institution like the tavern, the public baths or the mosque. Whereas they indeed had things in common, the coffeehouse was not just a melting pot of previously established outlets. It was something entirely different, whose arrival and immediate success signified a key moment in our shared cultural history because it established a vital change in the way people interacted socially. Take, for example, the case of the mosque: both the coffeehouse and the mosque acted as places of study and literary activity. The difference was that the coffeehouse would offer a far more worldly way to intellectual pursuits than the more secluded religious environment of the mosque. This was an innovation.
Another way this new institution stirred the waters of social life was the transfer of hospitality from the home to the coffeehouse. The coffeehouse was a catalyst for hospitality as people had come to experience it at the time. Before the emergence of the coffeehouse, if one wanted to meet and enjoy the company of friends, they needed to do so in the confines of their own home. Suddenly, as Hattox describes it, 'men went out at night to drink, to meet with others, exchange information, ideas or pleasantries, and otherwise amuse themselves. Hospitality was no longer synonymous with the home, nor was one’s list of leisure-time companions coterminous with one’s familiars with other contexts’.
To our world, this might seem insignificant, but at the time, this was an aberration. It was a disruption of everyday habits and established patterns. Soon, however, this social disruption would take deep roots and from innovation, it would quickly reach the status of the new social norm.
The history of the coffeehouse is neither grand nor as old as time. It was born some five hundred years ago in the faraway lands of the Levant. At first, it grew as a ritual in the hands of the mystical Sufis, a great aid to their nocturnal mysteries, before commencing its journey to the heart of the city, where it quickly took its first form. Soon, this seemingly unimportant beverage with a barely documented history and a flourishing institution to its name would break the mould of European social life for good.
References
Hattox, Ralph. Coffee and Coffeehouses: The Origins of a Social Beverage in the Medieval Near East. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1985.
De Thévenot, Jean. Suite du voyage du Levant, 3rd ed., 2 vols: 1:71. Amsterdam, 1727.
Markman, Ellis. The Coffeehouse: A Cultural History. London: Orion Books, 2004. Kindle edition.
